II - SOCIAL ISSUES
1. SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN INDIA
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Human world is composed of individuals. Individuals interact with one another for the fulfillment of their needs. In this process, they occupy certain status and roles in social life with accompanying rights and obligations. Their social behaviour is patterned and gets associated with certain norms and values, which provide them guidance in social interaction. There emerge various social units, such as groups, community, associations and institutions in society as a product of social intercourse in human life.In this scenario, social structure is conceived as the pattern of inter-related statuses and roles found in a society, constituting a relatively stable set of social relations. It is the organised pattern of the inter-related rights and obligations of persons and groups in a system of interaction.
HISTORICAL RELEVANCE
India is a country where people have come to acquire multiple identities based on region (e.g. North India, North East India, Deccan and South India), language (e.g. Hindi, Tamil, and Telugu), religion (e.g. Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh), etc. Each set of these and other identities corresponding to a distinct set of social relations, i.e., a distinct social structure. However, there are threads which bind many of them together. Therefore understanding Indian social structure is necessary because it explains our relations with each other in society. It tells us what kind of social institutions exist in society and how they got modified over a period of time. Let us start with the Vedic Period.
- The Aryans invaded India and were victorious over the original inhabitants.
- The Aryans were themselves divided into several tribes.
- The head of the Tribe was known as Raja or King who was first among the equals.
- The major differentiation existed between people on the basis of ‘varna’ or colour. Thus, the people who did not belong to the vedic tribes were termed as dasa varna. They are said to have had an alien language, a dark complexion and worshiped different gods.
- This initial differentiation later developed into a complex ‘varna system’, which in place of the Tribe had divided society into Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra categories.
- The members of the Brahman ‘varna’ usually functioned as priests. The Kshatriyas were associated with the political functions, the Vaishyas were mostly agriculturists and the Shudras were the servile class.
- The first two ‘varnas’ exploited the most numerous and productive Vaishya varna, whereas the three in unision exploited the Shudras.
- The three higher ‘varnas’ were also entitled to the sacred (upanayana) thread ceremony and were known as ‘dvijas’ (twice-born).
- Many changes took place in the economy during the post-vedic period. These changes needed new ideological support which came in the form of numerous unorthodox religious movements such as Buddhism which ridiculed the Hindu social system. But Buddhism could not negate the caste system completely. The Kshatriyas were considered the highest ‘varna’ in the social hierarchy as seen by the Buddhists. The Vaishyas who were exploited under Brahmanism became members of these religions in large numbers in order to gain respectability. However, there was no caste hierarchy within the Buddhist and Jain monastic communities.
‘Varna/Jati’ system underwent further changes when new groups such as the Shakas, Kushanas, Parthians and Indo-Greeks people arrived in India. The economy was also undergoing changes. Growth of urbanisation, craft production, and trade resulted in the rise of guilds or ‘shreni’ which in later times became castes.
The period between 500 BC and 500 AD saw the crystallisation of the caste system. The number of castes increased manifold because of the growth of a number of crafts, arrival of new elements in the population, inter-caste marriages (anulomaand pratiloma) and inclusion of many Tribes into caste hierarchy. The Dharmashastras and the Smritis tried to fix the duties of each caste. The relations between castes were generally governed by the rules of endogamy, commensuality and craft-exclusiveness.
Between the fifth and seventh centuries further changes occurred in the varna/caste organisation. A creation of landlords through land grants resulted in the transformation of Vaishyas into servile peasants. Large numbers of tribal cultivators were enrolled as Shudras. Consequently the Shudras now emerged as farmers like the Vaishyas. Now, the Vaishyas and Shudras were lumped together. However, in regions other than the Ganga basin, the caste system took a different shape. In Bengal, South India and other border areas mainly two castes emerged i.e. the Brahmanas and the Shudras. The Rajputs emerged as a significant factor in the society of Northern India from the seventh century onwards. In this period caste system became so entrenched in the psyche of the people that even the plants were divided on the basis of the varna/caste system. One text prescribes varying sizes of houses according to the varnas.An important development during medieval times, particularly in South India, was the division of the Shudras into ‘pure’ (sat) and ‘impure’ (asat) categories. Also typical of the south were the so called ‘left-hand’ (idangai) and ‘right-hand’ (velangai) castes. Manu noted 61 castes whereas a later text counted hundreds of mixed castes (varnasankara).Very often a large number of these castes claim origin from highly respected ancestors and explain their current lower status in terms of economic or other factors. The Khatris, an important caste in Northern India, claim that they were of Kshatriya origin, but took to commerce, which brought them the contempt of their caste fellows and they had to accept Vaishyastatus.The Gurjaras, Jats and Ahirs all claim Kshatriya origin, the status they came to lose later for various reasons. This process of claiming high caste origin continued till the 1950s when the Constitution of India provided for reservations for lower castes in most government jobs.The caste system has its regional variations. The formation of regions and regional consciousness after the eighth century AD contributed to this variation. The North Indian Brahmanas are divided not only on the basis of gotra but also on the basis of their residence.In modern times the caste system acquired some new features. Thus, the idea of ‘surnames’ was also added. One particular caste or sub-caste came to acquire one, sometimes more, ‘surnames’. However, ample variation is found in this matter. Caste and anti-caste movements of the modern period resulted in the formation of further new castes. Thus the Brahma-samajis acquired status which is very similar to a caste.The caste system, as can be seen from the above description, has a complex working method. Substantial regional variation is found and hence it has been impossible to define it in a precise manner region, sub-region, economic status, nearness to political authority, craft, vocation, following a particular deity all have come to play a role in its formation and subsequent changes.The influence of caste system has been so great that even though the egalitarian religious reformers of the medieval period such as Basava, Ramanand and Kabir, tried to abolish caste among their followers, their sects soon took on the characteristics of new castes.
The Sikhs, could not overcome caste feelings. Even the Muslims formed caste groups. Syrian Christians of Kerala, earlier divided into sections, took on a caste character. The Christian converts brought their caste prejudices with them and high caste converts consider themselves aloof from those of the lower orders.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Which is the earliest identifiable social organisation?
2. Name any two Tribes which existed during the Vedic period.
3. What is the meaning of ‘dvijas’?
4. Who were the people whose arrival in India brought a lot of changes in the caste system?
5. When were the Shudras divided into pure and impure?
CASTE
People usually marry within the caste or sub-caste. Members of a caste trace their origin from a common ancestor — historical, mythical or divine. The properties of that ancestor are worthy of being remembered by people; and these are well known to such an extent that a mere mention of that name is enough to recognise the group to which a person belongs. Each caste has its own social rules regarding things it can take or not take, use or not use. These relate to dress, ornaments, and even place for living. Some of the activities of the castes relate to the wider social setting which is based on the principle of ascription, birth determining the membership of a person and the status of the group.In case of the caste-based society as a whole, each group is assigned a particular place on the social ladder. This arrangement reflects the hierarchy of castes, and thus the caste system represents the extreme degree of ‘institutionalised inequality’ in the world.
Changes in the Caste System
India society has never been static. The main traditional avenues of social mobility were Sanskritisation, migration and religious conversion. Lower castes or tribes could move upward in the caste hierarchy through acquisition of wealth and political power. They could consequently claim higher caste status along with Sanskritising their way of life, i.e., emulating the life-style and customs of higher castes.Some important changes have taken place in the caste system in rural areas in the contemporary period due to the new forces of industrialisation, urbanisation, politicisation, modern education and legal system, land reforms, development programmes and government policy of positive discrimination in favour of the lower castes.Occupational association of caste has marginally changed in rural areas. Brahmins may still work as priests. In addition, they have taken to agriculture. Landowning dominant castes belonging to both upper and middle rung of caste hierarchy generally work as supervisory farmers. Other non-landowning lower castes, including small and marginal peasants, work as wage labourers in agriculture. Artisan castes, namely, carpenters and iron-smith continue with their traditional occupations. However, migration to urban areas has enabled individuals from all castes including untouchables to enter into non-traditional occupations in industry, trade and commerce, and services.Further, inter-caste marriage is almost non-existent in rural areas. Inter-caste restrictions on food, drink and smoking continue but to a lesser degree because of the presence of tea stalls in villages which are patronised by nearly all castes. The hold of untouchability has lessened. Distinction in dress has become more a matter of income than caste affiliation. In traditional India, the upper castes were also upper classes but it is not absolutely true today because now new occupational opportunities to gain income have developed in villages. People migrate to cities and bring money back to their villages. This has changed the traditional social structure.Caste has acquired an additional role of operating as interest groups and associations in politics with the introduction of representative parliamentary politics.Thus caste has undergone adaptive changes. Its traditional basic features, i.e. connubial (matrimonial), commensal (eating together) and ritual, still prevail in rural areas. The core characteristics of the castes, which have affected the social relations, are still operative. However the status quo of the intermediate and low castes has changed due to their acquiring political and/or economic power.
Q. What are the main features of caste system in India? Use five lines for your answer.
Q. Fill in the blanks in the following sentences.
a) Exogamy means marriage ………………… one’s own group.
b) The members of a caste trace their origin from a common ancestor who might be historical,……………….(or)……………………
UNTOUCHABILITY
The concept of purity and pollution in Indian society is best reflected in the formation of a category known as untouchables (antyajas). These people were considered as belonging outside the Brahmanical society. This notion of untouchability took roots during the last phase of the Vedic period and became a separate social category in the age of the Buddha.Sometimes they were called the fifth varna (panchamd). Chandala is the term used loosely for many types of untouchables. They were not allowed to reside in the caste villages and had to stay in special quarters outside the main settlements. Their main task was to carry and cremate the corpses. The law-books have prescribed that they should be dressed in the garments of the corpses they cremated, should eat food from broken vessels and should wear only iron ornaments. By the Gupta period their status fell so much that they were forced to further strike a wooden clapper on entering a town.The hunters (nishada), fishermen (kaivartas) leather workers (charmakaras), sweepers (kukkusa), and basket makers (vend) all became untouchables. ‘Dom’ and ‘Domb’ was a tribe which became an untouchable category after coming into contact with the caste divided groups. We also hear of dombkings apart from many Shudra Kings. Mlechchaswere also considered untouchables. This untouchability has continued till recent times.
Although the practice of untouchability is considered a crime but in rural areas it still continues. Mahatma Gandhi initiated a campaign against this practice. He preferred to call them harijans. The Government of India has enacted many laws against anyone practising or promoting untouchability. Education and social movements has contributed towards bridging the large gulf between them and the others. It is hoped that this very inhuman practise is wiped out soon.
Q. Name some other social activists who fought against untouchability.
Q. What are the constitutional provisions to guard against untouchability?
Q. Untouchability has been mentioned in which article of the Constitution of India?
FAMILY
The traditional Indian family is a large kinship group commonly described as joint family. A joint family is one in which two or more generations live under one roof or different roofs having a common hearth. All the members own the immovable property of the line in common. This family is generally patriarchal and patrilineal, that is, the father or the oldest male member is the head of the house and administrator of the property and the headship descends in the male line. In modern towns a large number of nuclear families exist which consist of wife, husband and the children. Such families are also partiarchal and patrilineal.But there are many regions where families are matrilineal in which the headship descends in the female line such as in Kerala and the northeastern region of Nagaland and Meghalaya.Whatever be the nature of the family it is the primary unit of the society. The members of the family are bound together by ‘shraddha’, the rite of commemorating the ancestors. ‘Shraddha’ defined the family; those who were entitled to participate in the ceremony were ‘sapindas’, members of the family group. The bond between the members of the family gave a sense of social security to its members. In distress a man could rely on the other members of the extended family. At the time of festivals and marriages, the responsibilities were shared reinforcing the family bond.
The sacred law made provisions for the break-up of the very large and unmanageable joint families. Such break-ups took place on the death of the patriarch. The joint family property did not include individual properties of the members at least from medieval times onwards and hence such properties could not be divided.In the post-independence period the Constitution provided that each religious community would be governed by their religious personal laws in marters of marriage, divorce, inheritance, succession adoption, guardianship,
custodyofchildrenandmaintenance.Thus,theHindu,Buddhist,SikhandJaincommunitiesaregovernedby the codified Hindu Acts of 1955-56. The Muslim and Christian and Parsi families have their own set of personal laws based on religion
MARRIAGE
Families are the result of a very important ‘samskara’ ceremony known as marriage. Depending on its nature, marriage is of many kinds such as hypergamous (man of so called high caste and woman of low caste) or anuloma and hypogamous (man of low caste and woman of high caste) or pratiloma based on an alliance between different varna/ caste; monogamous, polygamous and polyandrous based on the number of spouses. Examples of all kinds of marriages can be found in the Indian society.
Traditionally speaking, marriages were arranged by the parents of the couple who usually belong to the same caste, but of different ‘gotras’ (persons having common ancestor) and ‘pravaras’ (prohibited degree), if they were of ‘dvija’ category.‘Gotra’ and ‘pravara’ did not exist for the lower varna/ caste categories. However a large number of communities have acquired ‘gotras’ for themselves. ‘Pravara’ relates to the “rules of prohibited degrees” which are very strict where marriage is forbidden between persons with a common paternal ancestor within seven generation or a maternal ancestor within five.In the southern part of India, however, this rule has never been followed and there are records of marriage between cousins and cross-cousin marriage which are considered legal and socially approved. Exemptions are provided for these groups in the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955.
Commonly monogamous marriages in which one person is married to only one person at a time, is followed but traditionally polygamy was not prohibited. The rich and powerful could have, and often had more than one wife.Polygamy was generally, followed for a variety of reasons. In ancient time the kings needed to forge alliances with powerful people and marriage was a convenient method. Marriages of Chandragupta and Akbar are of this nature. The religious idea behind having a son also becomes a reason for taking many wives. However, under the modern laws polygamy has been rendered illegal. Only Muslims can marry four times that too with some preconditions.
The Brahmanical Sacred Law considered a marriage indissoluble once the seven steps (i.e. seven phera) had been taken together. This means that there was no place for divorce. The ‘Arthashastra’ however, shows that in certain cases divorce was allowed.
In later times such provisions were forgotten. Among many lower castes, however, divorce is still permitted. In modern times, mutual consent, incompatibility, desertion, cruelty are considered valid reasons for getting a divorce on both sides. We all know about the case of Draupadi marrying five Pandava brothers. This kind of marriage is known as polyandrous marriage. There are a number of communities in which this type of marriage is considered a valid and preferred type of marriage. Generally the woman marries brothers and rarely men of different parentage in such communities. Such marriages are considered anti-social by the upper-varna/caste people of the plains but in the societies where such marriages are solemnized having more than one husband is considered a matter of pride and not of shame.
WOMEN
The history of women in India is the story of progressive decline. During the Vedic period even under patriarchy women participated in all the affairs of the Tribe barring wars. They were composers of hymns, they could marry the men of their choice at a mature age. In the post-vedic phase with the break-up of tribal institutions their position deteriorated. The early law books reduced the women to the status of a ‘Shudra’. Except some personal property (‘stridhana’) they were not entitled to any property. Even Vedic knowledge was closed to women. At this time the heterodox sects gave them some place of respect.The Tantric sects of the early medieval period gave woman an important place in their cult and instituted orders of female ascetics.
In general throughout the early historical and early medieval periods women were not encouraged to take up any intellectual activity. Their true function was marriage and taking care of their families. Women belonging to upper castes received some education and a few of them are mentioned as poets and dramatists. The chief female characters in Sanskrit dramas are often described as reading, writing and composing songs.In the medieval period and till very recent times music and dancing were looked on as unfit for high caste women and were practised only by low-caste women and prostitutes. But it was not the case in early periods. Barring the Rig-Vedic period women seem to occupy very low status in society. Marriage at an early age became sanctified. ‘Sati System’ became quite common. However, Ibn Battutah, a foreign traveller, mentions that in the medieval period, permission from the Sultan had to be taken for the performance of ‘sati’. Widow remarriage was not permissible but right to property of the widows in certain cases was recognised.In the medieval period, the practice of keeping a veil on the faces for women became widespread among the upper class women. The Arabs and the Turks adopted this custom from the Iranians and brought it to India with them. Because of them, it became a widespread practice in north India. A careful look at the treatment to women shows that it was the result of a process set in motion in the Vedic period itself. In the medieval period the system of veil became a symbol of the higher classes in society and all those who wanted to be considered respectable tried to copy it. It was less prevalent among lower caste women.
With the decline of the Mughal supremacy and expansion of colonial structure in India, the influence of modern ideas set in motion a process of change in a different direction. Under the influence of modern education, a set of social reformers campaigned for legislation which would uplift the status of women in society. With the efforts of Ram Mohan Roy, Radhakanta Deb, Bhawani Charan Banerji the practice of ‘sati’ was banned in 1829. In 1895, killing of female infants was declared a murder. In independent India through the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 set the minimum age limit for the bridegroom was fixed at eighteen years and for the bride at fifteen. In 1856, through the efforts of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar the first widow remarriage took place. Pandit Vishnu Shastri founded Widow Marriage Association in 1860. All their efforts have resulted in a considerable upliftment of women. Recently the Supreme Court of India has further recognized the daughter’s share in her father’s property. The condition of women is going to improve in future with growing awareness in society as well as through legislation
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What is the basis of ‘anuloma’ and ‘pratiloma’ marriages?
2. What is monogamous marriage?
3. Name some organizations involved in the upliftment of women in India and the world.
4. What are the Supreme Court’s views about women’s share in father’s property?
TRIBAL COMMUNITIES
Tribe is a modern term for communities that are very old, being among the oldest inhabitants of the sub continent. In general tribal population is expected to possess some of the following characteristics:
1. Tribes have their roots in the soil dating back to a very early period.
2. They live in relative isolation in the hills and forests.
3. Their socio, economic and educational development need to be given priority.
4. In terms of their cultural ethos (langauge, institutions, beliefs and customs), their life style is very different from the other section of society.
Tribes are indigenous people who are termed as the Fourth World. These peoples are the descendents from a country’s aboriginal population and today they are completely or partly deprived of the rights to their own territory. Indigenous peoples are strikingly different and diverse in their culture, religion, social and economic organizations. They are still being exploited by the outside world (land grabbing, lending, etc.).
By some they are idealized as the embodiment of spiritual values, by others they are designated as an obstacle impeding economic progress.
They cherish their own distinct cultures. They are victims of past colonialism.
Some live according to their traditions, some receive welfare, some work in factories, some in other professions.They have maintained a close living relationship to the land in which they live and there exists a cooperative attitude of give and take, a respect for the earth and life it supports.
In India, tribes are generally called adivasis, implying original inhabitants. The ancient and Medieval Indian literatures mention a large number of tribes living in India. Before the introduction of the caste system during the Brahminic Age, people were divided into various tribes.
Government of India has specified 427 communities and has included them in the schedule of tribes. These tribes are known as scheduled tribes. They are entitled to special protection and privileges under the Constitution of India.
Numerically, the three most important tribes are the Gonds, the Bhils and the Santhals each having a population of more than 30 lakh. Next to them are the Minas, the Mundas, the Oraons each having a population of more than 5 lakh. Then there are 42 tribes each having a population between one and five lakh.
The tribal people of India, who come under the category of Scheduled Tribes (ST’s) in terms of the provisions of the constitution of India, number 8.43 crore, constituting 8.2 percent of the population of the country according to 2001 census.
From the point of view of distribution and diversity of the tribal population, India can be divided into seven zones.
1. North Zone
This zone covers Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, sub-Himalayan Uttar Pradesh, Bihar. The prominent tribes here are Khasa, Tharu, Bhoksa, Bhotias, Gujjars and the Jaunsaris. Khasas are a polyandrous tribe. Bhotias make carpets and are involved in the Indo-china border trade. The Gujjars are a pastoral tribe. The major problems of the tribes of this zone are inaccessibilty, lack of communication, poverty, illiteracy and land alienation.
2. North-Eastern Zone
This zone includes seven north-eastern states, and the major tribal groups here are Nagas, Khasi, Garo, Mishing, Miri, Karbi and the Apatauis. Ecological degradation because of shifting cultivation and inaccessibility due to lack of communication facilities are two major problems of these tribes. Because of a high degree of isolation, the tribes of this sector have not really shared history with the mainstream Indians and have instead shared history with the neighbouring communities. This explains why there is an element of hostility of these tribes with the mainstream.
3. Central Zone
This zone has maximum concentration of tribal population. It stretches from southern Madhya Pradesh to South Bihar across northern Orissa. The major tribes lying in this zone are the Santhals, HO, Baiga, Abhujanaria, Muria, Munda and Birhor. The major problems faced by the tribes of this region are land alienation, indebtedness. Among the tribes of this region, the Santhals have discovered a script of their own, called ole chiki. Baigas are a prominent shifting cultivation tribe. Birhors are a very backward tribe of this region and because of extreme backwardness and no secure means of livelihood, they are threatened with extinction.
4. Southern Zone
This zone comprises the Nilgiris together with the adjoining hilly regions in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. It is the smallest, the most backward and the most isolated tribal communities on the mainland. Tribes of this region are Toda, Koya, Chenchu and Allars. Todas are a pastoral people who practise buffalo herding. Allars are cave dwellers, who also live on tree tops. Chencus are a very backward tribe who survive mainly on hunting gathering. The major problem of these tribes are shifting cultivation, economic backwardness, isolation, lack of communication and threat of extinction oflangauges.
5. Eastern Zone
This zone includes West Bengal, Orissa and tribes such as Paraja, Kondhas, Bondas, Bhumiya, Gadabas, Bhuinyas and Sqoras. The major problems of the tribes of this zone are economic backwardness, exploitation by forest officials and contractors, land alienation, prevalence of disease and displacement due to industrial projects.
6. Western Zone
Rajasthan and Gujarat are included in this zone. Tribes which are found here are Bhils, Garasiya and Meenas. Meenas are a very advanced and well educated tribe.
7. Island Region
Andaman and Nicobar islands, Lakshadweep and Daman and Diu are included in this zone. Great Andamanese, Santinelese, Jarwas, Onges, Nicobaris and Shampen are tribes of this region. Some of these tribes are extremely backward and are struggling to come out of the stone age mode of livelihood. Most of these tribes are classified as minor tribes which face the threat of extinction. Apart from the problem of survival, prevalence of disease and malnutrition are some other problems of the tribes of this region. The basic strategy of the government for the tribal region is aimed at providing protection to the tribals and bringing about their economic development. The tribal sub plan strategy was initiated during the Fifth five year plan. This is a comprehensive, well-knit and integrated programme. It’s objective is, elemination of exploitation of tribals, socio-economic development, bridging the gap in development vis-a-vis other areas, improvement of quality of life.
- Tribe is one of the earliest identifiable ethenic cum social organizations. A fairly good number of tribes such as Munda, Ho, Oraon, Bhil, Gaddi, Santhal, Kol, Kandh, Khasi, Garo, Mizo, Naga exist in different parts of India. These have been clubbed together in a group in a schedule of the Constitution of India and are known as the Scheduled Tribes.
- The pertinent question here is: Who is a tribal, and what differentiates a tribe from other groups based on caste or varna? The answer to this lies in the functioning of the institution.
- We can identify a tribe by the following features:
a) All members are related to each other by blood
b) All members are equal in status
c) All members believe that they have descended from a common ancestor
d) All members have equal access to there sources
e) The sense of private property is least visible
f) Social differentiation exists only on the basis of age and sex. - Tribes are very often made up of more than one clan. A clan is an exogamous institution whereas a tribe is endogamous.
- Such tribes existed during the Vedic period. The Bharatas, Yadus, Turvasas, Druhyus, Purus and Anus were some of the prominent Tribes.
INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. State two characteristics of tribal population.
2. Who are indigenous people?
3. What is the term used for Tribes in India?
4. How many communities have been given schedule tribe status in India?
5. What percentage of tribal population is in India?
6. What are the determinants of tribal population in India?
7. What are two parameters for identification of the Scheduled Tribes?
8. What are the prominent tribes of North India?
9. What are the main problems of the tribals of eastern zone?
10. Name some tribes which have a very small population.
11. When was tribal sub plan strategy initiated?
12. What is tribal sub plan and its objectives?