Current Affairs And General Knowledge

ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION IN INDIA

Ancient Civilizations in India

• The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancientcivilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar‐Hakra River in what is now Pakistan and north‐ westernIndia.
• According to radio‐ carbon dating, it spread from theyear 2500 – 1750 BC.
• R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa (onRavi) in 1921. R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro or‘Mound of the Dead’ (on Indus) in 1922. Sir John Marshalplayed a crucial role in both these.
• Harappan Civilization forms part of the proto historyof India and belongs to the Bronze Age.
• Copper, bronze, silver, gold were known but not iron.
• The Indus‐ Valley people were well‐ acquainted withthe use both of cotton and wool.

Domestication of animals:

• Stock breeding was important in Indus culture. Besides sheep and goats, dogs, humped cattle buffalo and elephant was certainly domesticated. The camel was rare and horsewas not known

Indus Valley Civilization Town Planning :

• Elaborate town‐ planning. It followed the Grid System. Roads were well cut, dividing the town into large rectangularor square blocks
• Used burnt bricks of good quality as the buildingmaterial. Elsewhere in the contemporary world, mud‐bricks were used.
• In Mohanjodaro, a big public bath (Great Bath)measuring 12 m by 7 m and 2.4 m deep, has been found.Steps led from either end to the surface, with changingrooms alongside. It was probably used for ritual bathing.

Major Cities and Their Features:

• Mohenjodaro (Sind) is situated on the right bank of theIndus.
• Chanhudaro lies on the left bank of the Indus about130 km south of Mohenjodaro.
• Kalibangan (Rajasthan) was on the banks of the riverGhaggar which dried up centuries ago.
• Lothal is at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.
• Banawali (Haryana) was situated on the banks of thenow extinct Sarasvati River.
• Surkotada (Gujarat) is at the head of the Rann ofKutch
• Dholavira (Gujarat) excavated is in the Kutch district

Trade and Commerce in Ancient India:

• There was no metallic money in circulation and tradewas carried through Barter System
• Weights and measures of accuracy existed in Harappanculture (found at Lothal). The weights were made of limestone, steatite, etc. and were generally cubical in shape.
• 16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64,160, 320).
• A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal. Rangpur,Somnath and Balakot functioned as seaports. Sutkagendorand Sutkakoh functioned as outlets.

Indus Valley Civilization Script :

• The script is not alphabetical but pictographic (about600 undeciphered pictographs).
• The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlapsof letters show that it was written from right to left in the firstline and left to right in the second line. This style iscalled ‘Boustrophedon’

VEDIC PERIOD IN INDIA

• The Harappan civilization was followed by Vedic orRig‐ Vedic culture which was completely opposed to it. TheVedic culture was founded by the Aryans.
• They were immigrants and arrived in India between2000 and 1500 BC.
• The Aryans were considered to be one of the world'smost civilized communities. They were far ahead of otherraces of their time.
• The word ‘Arya’ came to refer to any person who wasrespected.
• Aryans were fond of soma, sura, food and dresses.Soma was drunk at sacrifices and its use was sanctified byreligion. Sura was purely secular and more potent, and wasdisapproved by the priestly poets.

Rivers in Rigveda

Modern Names- Rigvedic Names

• Indus - Sindhu
  - Jhelum - Vitasta
  - Chenab - Asikni
  - Ravi - Purushni
  - Beas - Vipasa
  - Sutlei - Sutudri
  - Gomati - Gumal
  - Kurram - Krumu
  - Ghaggar – Drisshadva

Vedic Period Religion :

• The most important divinity was Indra who played therole of warlord (breaker of forts – Purandar, also associatedwith storm and thunder).
• The second position was held by Agni (fire‐ god). Heis considered as an intermediary between gods and men.
• Varuna occupied the third position. He personifiedwater and was supposed to uphold the natural order. Hewas ethnically the highest of all Rigvedic gods.

BUDDHISM IN INDIA

• Born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poornima Day atLumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal.
• His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler.
• His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty) died after7 days of his birth. Brought up by step motherGautami.
• Married at 16 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married lifefor 13 years and had a son named Rahula.
• Left his palace at 29 (with Channa, the charioteer andhis favourite horse, Kanthaka) in search of truth (also called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’ or The Great Renunciation) andwandered for 6 years.
• Attained ‘Nirvana’ or ‘Enlightenment’ at 35 at Gaya inMagadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.
• Delivered the first sermon at Sarnath where his fivedisciples had settled. His first sermon is called‘Dharmachakrapravartan’ or ‘Turning of the Wheel of Law’.
• Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identicalwith village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC atthe age of 80 in the Malla republic.

Buddhist Councils :

• The monks gathered 4 times after the death of Buddhaand the effect of these events had their effect on Buddhism.
• First Council:At Rajgriha, in 483 BC under thechairman ship of Mehakassaapa (King was Ajatshatru).Divided the teachings of Buddha into two Pitakas – VihayaPitaka and Sutta Pitaka. Upali recited the Vinaya PitakaandAnanda recited the Sutta Pitaka.
• Second Council:At Vaishali, in 383 BC underSabakami (King was Kalasoka). Followers dividedinto Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas.
• Third Council : At Pataliputra, in 250 BC underMogaliputta Tissa (King was Ashoka). In this, thethird part of the Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language.
• Fourth Council : At Kashmir (Kundalvan), in 72 ADunder Vasumitra (King was Kanishka). Vice‐Chairman was Ashwaghosha). Divided Buddhism intoMahayana and Hinayana sects.

Buddist Literature :

• Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred toas Tripitakas, ie ‘Threefold Basket’.
• Vinaya Pitaka : Rules of discipline in Buddhistmonasteries.
• Sutta Pitaka : Largest, contains collection ofBuddha’s sermons.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka : Explanation of thephilosophical principles of the Buddhist religion.

JAINISM IN INDIA

• Founded by Rishabhanath.
• There were 24 tirthankaras (Prophetsor Gurus), allKshatriyas.
• First was Rishabhanath (Emblem: Bull).
• The 23rd Tirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake)wasthe son of King Ashvasena of Banaras. His main teachingswere: Non‐ injury, Non‐ lying, Non‐ stealing, Non‐possession.
• The 24th and the last Tirthankar was VardhmanMahavira (Emblem: Lion).

Vardhman Mahavira History :

• He was born in Kundagram (Distt Muzafffarpur, Bihar)in 599 BC.
• His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan.His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchavi Prince Chetak ofVaishali.
• Mahavira was related to Bimbisara.
• Married to Yashoda, had a daughter namedPriyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his firstdisciple.
• At 30, after the death of his parents, he became anascetic.
• In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th ofVaishakha), outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attainedsupreme knowledge (Kaivalya).
• From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya andMahavira, and his followers were named Jains.
• He also got the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy.
• At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna,in 527 BC.
• Note: In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are givenand they are called the way to Nirvana. Theyare Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.

History of Jain Councils:

• First Council : Held at Pataliputra by Sthulabhadra inthe beginning of third century BC. It resulted in thecompilation of 12 Angas to replace 14 Purvas.
• Second Council : It was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) inthe fifth century AD under the leadership ofDevridhigani.

THE MAGADHA EMPIRE

• Period of Magadha Empire: 6th Century – 4th CenturyBC.
• Extent of Magadha Empire: Magadha embraced theformer districts of Patna, Gaya & parts of Shahabad &grew to be the leading state of the time.
• Haryanka Dynasty : Originally founded in 566 BCby the grandfather of Bimbisara, but actualFoundation by Bimbisara.

King Bimbisara of Magadha (544 BC – 492 BC):

• Contemporary of Buddha.
• His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja)
• His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings inwhich were closed by stone walls on all sides. This madeRajgir

Ajatshatru History (492 BC – 460 BC):

• Son of Bimbisara killed his father & seized the throne.
• Buddha died during his reign; arranged the firstBuddhist Council.
• History of Udayin (460 – 444 BC): He founded thenew capital at Pataliputra, situated at theconfluence of the Ganga & Son.

Shishunaga Dynasty :

• Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was succeededby Kalasoka (II Buddhist council).
• Dynasty lasted for two generations only.
• Greatest achievement was the destruction of power ofAvanti.

Nanda Dynasty :

• Founder was Mahapadma Nanda.
• Alexander attacked India in their reign. Dhana Nandawas there at that time.

Alexander’s Invasion of India

• Alexander (356 BC – 323 BC) was the son of Philip ofMacedonia (Greece) who invaded India in 326 BC.
• At that time NW India was split up into a number ofsmall independent states like Taxila, Punjab(kingdom of Porus), Gandhara etc.
• Except Porus who fought the famous battle ofHydaspes (on banks of Jhelum) with Alexander, allother kings submitted meekly.
• Except Porus who fought the famous battle ofHydaspes (on banks of Jhelum) with Alexander, allother kings submitted meekly.
• When Alexander reached Beas, his soldiers refused togo further, so he was forced to retreat.
• To mark the farthest point of his advance, he erected12 huge stones altars on the northernbank of Beas.
• Remained in India for 19 months and died in 323 BCat Babylon.

THE MAURYAN DYNASTY

Chandragupta Maurya History (322 – 297 BC):

• With the help of Chanakya, known as Kautilya orVishnugupta, he overthrew the Nandas &established the rule of the Maurya dynasty.
• Built a vast empire, which included not only goodportions of Bihar and Bengal, but also western and northwestern India and the Deccan.
• This account is given by Megasthenes (A Greekambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of ChandraguptaMaurya) in his book Indica. We also get the details fromtheArthashastra of Kautilya
• Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went toSravanabelagola (near Mysore) with Bhadrabahu, where hedied by slow starvation.

History of Bindusara (297 – 273 BC):

• Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his sonBindusara in 297 BC.
• He is said to have conquered ‘the land between the 2seas’, i.e., the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal.

History of Ashoka (269 – 232 BC):

• Ashoka was appointed the Viceroy of Taxila and Ujjainby his father, Bindusara
• Ashoka became the Buddhist under Upagupta.
• The Kalinga War History : (261 BC, mentioned inXIII rock edict). It changed his attitude towards life. Ashokabecame a Buddhist after that.

Causes of the fall of Mauryan Empire :

• Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhism and his anti sacrificial attitude is said to have affected the income of theBrahmins. So they developed antipathy against Ashoka.
• Revenue from agrarian areas was not sufficient tomaintain such a vast empire as booty from war
• was negligible.
• Successors of Ashoka were too weak to kee togethersuch a large centralized empire.
• Note: The last Mauryan king Brihadratha was killedby Pushyamitra Shunga (Commander in Chief) in 185 BC,who started the Shunga dynasty in Magadha

THE GUPTA DYNASTY

Gupta Empire Golden Age of India

• On the ruins of the Kushan empire arose a new empire,which established its way over a good part of the formerdominions of both Kushans and Satavahanas. The first twokings of the dynasty were Srigupta and Ghatotkacha.

Chandragupta I (AD 319 – 335):

• First important king of Gupta Dynasty.
• Started the Gupta era in 319‐ 320 AD.
• He enhanced his power & prestige by marryingKumara Devi, princes of the Lichchavi clan ofNepal.
• He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj.
• Struck coins in the joint names of himself, his queenand the Lachchavi nation, thereby acknowledging hismarriage alliance.

History of Samudragupta (AD 335 – 375):

• The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously byChandragupta’s son & successor Samudragupta.
• Samudragupta believed in the policy of war andconquest and because of his bravery and generalship he iscalled the ‘Napoleon’ of India (by the historian V.A. Smith).

History of Chandragupta – II (AD 380 – 413):

• Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta butChandragupta II killed him and married his queenDhruvadevi.
• He was the first ruler to issue silver coins. Also issuedcopper coins.
• His court was adorned by celebrated nine gems(navratnas) including Kalidasa, Amarsimha,Varahmihir, and Dhanvantri.
• Chinese pilgrim Fahien visited India at this time.

History of Kumaragupta – I (AD 413 – 455):

• He adopted the title of Mahendraditya.
• Founded Nalanda University (a renowned universityof ancient India).
• He was the worshipper of Lord Kartikeya (son of LordShiva).
• In the last years of his reign, the peace and prosperityof the empire was disturbed due to the invasion of Turko‐
• Mongol tribe, Hunas. During the war with the Hunas,Kumaragupta died.

History of Skandagupta (AD 455 – 467):

• Kumaragupta‐ I was followed by Skandagupta.Restored Sudarshana Lake. After his death, the great daysof the Guptas were over. The empire continued but centralcontrol weakened, and local governors became feudatorykings with hereditary rights.

Gupta Literature in India :

• Kalidas, the great Sanskrit dramatist, belonged to thisperiod. His books are: Abhigyanashakuntalam, (consideredas one of the best literary works in the world & one of theearliest Indian work to be translated into European language,the other work being the Bhagavadgita), Ritusamhara,Meghadutam, Kumarasambhavam, Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvansha, Vikramurvashi etc. Out of these,Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Raghuvansha wereepics and the rest were plays.
• Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa andDevichandraguptam
• Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchtantra and Hitopdesh
• The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskritgrammar based on Panini and Patanjali
• Ramayana & Mahabharata were almost completed bythe 4th century AD.

Other Dynasties and Rulers (7th Century–12th Century AD)

History of Harshavardhana (AD 606 – 647)

• Belonged to Pushyabhuti family & son of PrabhakarVardhan.
• Originally belonged to Thaneshwar, but shifted toKannauj (after Harsha’s death Kannauj was wonfrom Harsha’s successors by the Pratiharas).
• Chinese pilgrim, Hieun Tsang (Prince of Travelers)visited during his reign.
• Harsha himself wrote 3 plays – Priyadarshika,Ratnavali and Nagananda.
• After the death of Harsha in 647, the empire onceagain broke up into petty States.
• I – tsing, another Chinese pilgrim, visited in 670 AD.

The Vakatakas History :

• The Vakatakas came to control parts of the Deccanand Central India till the rise of the Chalukyas.
• The founder of this Brahmin dynasty wasVindhyasakti.

Chalukyas of Vatapi (Badami) :

• Founder : Pulakesin – I.
• Established their kingdom at Vatapi (modern Badami,Karnataka).
• Pulakesin – II Was their most famous king, who was acontemporary of Harsha

The Rashtrakutas Dynasty :

• Founder : Dantidurga.
• Their king, Krishna – I is remembered for constructingthe famous rock – cut Kailasha temple at Ellora. It wasconstructed in the Dravidian style and elaborately carvedwith fine sculptures.
• Their king, Krishna – III set up a pillar of victory and atemple at Rameshwaram
• Rashtrakutas are credited with the building of caveshrine of Elephanta. It was dedicated to Shiva

The Pallavas History :

• Founder : Simhavishnu. They set up their capital atKanchi (south of Chennai).
• Narsimhavarman was their greatest king.
• Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign

MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY

History of Muhammad Ghor

• The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India wasShihab – ud – Din Muhammad Ghori orMuhammad of Ghur
• It is true that Muhammad bin Qasim was the firstMuslim invader of India but he failed to carve out a Muslimempire in India on account of his premature death.
• Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the king of Delhi at thattime, received contingents from other Rajputkings and defeated him in the First Battle of Tarain (1191).
• But he defeated Prithviraj in the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192. Captured Delhi and Ajmer and thus laid thefoundation of Muslim Rule in India. Also defeatedJaichandra (Gahadval Rajput, ruler of Kannauj) at the Battleof Chandweri in 1194 AD.
• Ikhtiyar – ud – din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji,one of Ghori’s commanders, annexed Bihar and Bengal anddestroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila University.
• Died in 1206 AD, leaving Qutab – ud – Din Aibak thecharge.

The Ilbari Dynasty or Slave Dynasty of India

• Out of all the kings belonging to the so – called SlaveDynasty, only three, viz., Qutab – ud – din Aibak, Iltutmishand Balban were slaves and even they were manumitted bytheir masters.
• The dynasty is called Ilbari dynasty because all rulersof this dynasty, except Aibak, belonged tothe Ilbari tribe of Turks.

Qutab – ud – din Aibak History (1206 – 1210) :

• Md. Ghori left his Indian possessions in his hands. Heruled on the death of his master and foundedthis dynasty
• Famous for his generosity and earned the sobriquet oflakh – baksh (giver of Lakhs).
• Laid the foundation of Qutab Minar after the name offamous Sufi saint, Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
• Died of a horse fall at Lahore, while playing Chaugan(polo). The Turks only introduced polo inIndia.
• Built the first mosque in India – Quwwat – ul –Islam(at Delhi) and Adhai Din Ka Jhonpara (at Ajmer).

History of Aram Shah (1210) :

• When Qutab – ud – din Aibak died all of a sudden atLahore, the Amirs and Maliks of Lahore put Aram Shah onthe throne. Some texts say that he was the son of Aibak whileothers deny so.
• He was a weak and worthless young man and wasrejected by the people of Delhi. Iltutmish, who was theGovernor of Badaun at that time, defeated him and acquiredthe throne

Iltumish (1210 – 36) :

• Shams – ud – din Iltutmish was the son – in – law ofAibak.
• Prevented Chengiz Khan attack by refusing to giverefuge to an enemy of Khan, Jalaluddin Mangabarani (a rulerfrom Iran). Thus, due to his diplomatic skill he prevented Mongol attack.
• He got his authority (Sultanate of Delhi) recognized bythe Caliph of Baghdad (Khalifa), as a member of world,fraternity of Islamic states.
• He formed Turkan – i – Chahalgani or Chalisa (agroupof 40 powerful Turkish nobles to suppressnobles).
• Divided his empire into IQTAS, an assignment of landin lieu of salary, which he distributed to his officers. EveryIqtadar had to maintain law and order and collect revenue.After deducting his salary and the expenses of thegovernment, he sent the surplus revenue to the CentralGovernment. Iqtadars were transferable.
• He is called the Father of Tomb Building (built SultanGarhi in Delhi).
• As his successor, declared Razia, thus deviating fromthe normal practice.

Raziya History (1236 – 1240) :

• She was the first and the last Muslim woman ruler ofmedieval India. She succeeded her brother in1236 and ruled for 31 / 2 Years.
• She disregarded purdah, began to adorn male attire androde out in public on elephant back.
• She promoted Jamaluddin Yaqut, an Abyssinian, to theimportant office of superintendent of the stables. Itprovoked the Turkish nobles. There were simultaneousrevolts in the various parts of the kingdom. The Governorof Lahore was the first to create trouble but he was defeated.
• There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. MalikIkhtiyaruddin Altunia, Governor of Bhatinda, refused toacknowledge the suzerainty of Raziya. Raziya, accompanied by Yaqut Mared against Altunia. On the way,the
• Turkish followers of Altunia murdered Yaqut andimprisoned Raziya. She had to marry Altunia to get out ofthe situation.
• But she was killed, along with her husband, by BahramShah, a son of Iltutmish, on their way backto Delhi

Balban History (1266 – 1286) :

• He himself was a member of Chalisa. To guard himself,he got every member of Iltutmish family killedand gave adeath blow to the Turkish nobility (Chalisa).
• Introduced Sijdah or Paibos practice, in which thepeople were required to kneel and touch theground with their head to greet the Sultan.
• In order to win the confidence of the public, headministered justice with extreme impartiality. Heemployed an efficient spy system.
• He was a liberal patron of Persian literature andshowed special favour to the poet, Amir Khusro.
• But his son, Muhammad’s death was a smashing blowto Balban and the death – knell to his dynasty.
• After Balban’s death, Kaiqubad (1287 – 1290) sat onthrone but he was an inefficient and fun –loving person.

KHALJI DYNASTY IN INDIA

Jallaluddin Firuz Khalji History (1290 ‐ 1296):

• The most important event of his reign was the invasionof Devagiri in 1294 by his nephew andson‐ in‐ law, Ali Gurshap or Ala‐ ud‐ din Khalji. Devagiriwas the capital of the Yadava kingdom in
• the Deccan and Ala‐ ud‐ din plundered the vasttreasury.
• Married his daughter to Ulugh Khan, a descendent ofChengiz Khan, to win their goodwill
• He adopted Balban's policy of 'Blood and Iron' intackling the Mongol menace.
• Added an entrance door to Qutab Minar, Alai Darwazaand built his capital at Siri.
• Also built Hauz Khas, Mahal Hazaar Satoon andJamait Khana Mosque in Delhi.
• Adopted the title Sikandar‐ i‐ Sani.
• First Sultan to have permanent army‐ paid soldiers incash, imported horses, detaileddescription of each soldier
• (Chehra) and each horse (Dagh) was kept (first time).
• First Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religionfrom politics.
• Though Alauddin was illiterate, he was a patron oflearning and art. There were many great poets in his court.Both Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed hispatronage

Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah History (1316 ‐ 1320):

• He was one of the sons of Alauddin who, somehow,escaped the preying eyes of MalikKafur. After the death of Kafur he became the king.
• During his reign, many revolts took place across thecountry. Although he was able to crush them,he wasn't able to run the administration smoothly.

History of Nasiruddin Khusro Shah (1320):

• He killed Mubarak Shah and usurped the throne
• He was defeated and killed by Ghazi Malik. With him,the thirty year rule of Khalji dynasty alsocame to an end.

History of Malik Kafur :

• He was an Indian eunuch and slave who became ageneral in the army of Alauddin Khilji. In 1297, he waspurchased for 1,000 Dinars by Nusrat Khan.That is thereason why Malik Kafur is sometimes called Hazar ‐Dinari. It is reported that Alauddin fell in love with hiseffeminate handsomeness and named him seniorcommander in his army after he agreed to convert to Islam.
• After the death of Alauddin he placed, Kafur wasresponsible for the execution of all those princes of royalblood who had any claim to the throne. Thirty six daysafter the death of Alauddin, Kafur and his associates were killed

Amir Khusro (1253 ‐ 1325):

• Ab'ul Hasan Yamin al‐ Din Khusro, better known asAmir Khusro Dehlavi, is one of the iconic figures in thecultural history of India.
• Amir Khusro was not only one of India's greatest poets, he is also credited with being the founder of both Hindustaniclassical music and Qawwali (the devotionalmusic of the Sufis).
• He was born of a Turkish father, Saif Ad‐ din and anIndian mother, in India
• He was given the title Tuti‐ i‐ Hind (parrot of India)

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320 – 25) :

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founderof the Tughlaq Dynasty.
• He was the first Sultan of Delhi who took up th title ofGhazi or slayer of the infidels.
• Built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and made it hiscapital.
• Had troublesome relationship with the sufi saint, ShaikhNizamuddin Aulia.
• Died in 1325, after a fall from a high‐ raised pavilion.Ibn Batuta, the Moroccon traveller, who was in Delhi atthat time, opined that his death was due to sabotage arranged by his son, Jauna Khan.

History of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325 – 1351) :

• Real name was Jauna Khan.
• He built the fortress of Adilabad and the city ofJahanpanah
• The famous traveller, Ibn Batuta came to Delhi during1334. He acted as the Quazi of the capitalfor 8 years. He Has recorded the contemporary Indianscene in his ‘Safarnamah’ (called Rehla).

History of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 – 1388) :

• He was Muhammad’s cousin. He was chosen theSultan by the nobles.
• He tried to appease everybody. He cancelled the loansof peasants which had been advanced by hispredecessor.
• He made iqtadary system hereditary. The principle ofheredity was recognised not only in civil offices, but also inarmy. Soldiers were given land assignments instead of cashpayment.
• Imposed some new taxes :
  
  1. Kharaj : a land tax equal to 1/10 of the produce of theland (by Hindus only).
  2. Jaziya : a tax by non – muslims (even by brahmins).
  3. Zakat : Tax on property (@ 2.5%) (by Muslims only).
  4. Khams : 1 / 5th of booty captured in war.
• Took steps to translate Hindu religious texts & Sanskritbooks on music into Persian.
• Built new towns : Hissar, Firozpur, Fatehabad,Firozabad (the present day Firoz Shah Kotla in Delhi) andJaunpur.
• Repaired Qutab Minar when it was struck bylightening.
• Built his capital Firozabad and to beautify it, brought 2Ashoka Pillars, one from Topara inAmbala & the other from Meerut.
• Wrote a book ‘Fatuhat Firozshahi
• Khwaja Abdul Malik Isami wrote Futuh – us – Sulatin.
• He formed Diwan – i – Khairat and built Dar – ul –Shafa or a charitable hospital at Delhi. Also introduced 2new coins – Adha (50% jital) and bikh (25% jital).

The Later Tughlaqs History :

• Firoz Tughlaq was succeeded by his grand son whotook up the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq ShahII. He was a pleasure – loving king who tried to strengthenhis position by merely disposing of allpossible rivals.
• Ghiyasuddin was replaced by Abu Bakr Shah in 1389.
• Abu Bakr was replaced by Nasiruddin Muhammad in1390, who ruled till 1394

Sayyid Dynasty

• Khizr Khan (1414 – 1421) founded the dynasty andclaimed to have descended from the prophet of Islam.
• Khizr Khan’s 3 successors – Mubarak Shah (1421 –33), Muhammad Shah (1434 – 43) and Alauddin
• Alam Shah (1443 – 51) were incapable leaders
• Yahya – bin – Ahmed – bin – Abdullah – Sirhindi wrote Tarikh – i – Mubarakshahi (history from Mahmud toMuhammad Shah of Sayyid Dynasty).

THE LODHI DYNASTY

History of Bahlul Lodhi (1451 – 1489):

• Conquest Jaunpur by ousting Sharqui dynasty.
• Revived Sultanate to quite an extent.

History of Sikandar Lodhi (1489 – 1517):

• Real name was Nizam Khan. Noblest of the threeLodhi rulers
• Introduced the Gaz‐ i‐ Sikandari (Sikandar’s yard) of32 digits for measuring cultivated fields.
• In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it hiscapital.
• Was a poet himself and wrote verses in Persian underthe pen‐ name of Gulrukhi.
• Repaired Qutab Minar

Ibrahim Lodhi (1517 – 1526):

• Was defeated and killed by Babur in the I Battle ofPanipat in 1526.
• With this the Sultanate of Delhi ended.

History of Malwa :

• Malwa was annexed by Alauddin Khalji in 1305 andremained a part of Sultanate until itsGovernor; Dihawan Khan Ghuri asserted his independencein 1435.
• It became powerful under the reign of Hushang Shah.He beautified the city Mandu with Jama Masjid, HindolMahal and Jahaz Mahal. Next ruler, Mahmud Khalji wasdefeated by Rana Kumbha.
• Malwa became a part of Gujarat in 1531, and wasfinally annexed by the Mughals in 1562.

History of Mewar :

• Alauddin Khalji captured its capital Chittor in 1303. ButRajput rule was soon restored by Rana Hamir(1326‐ 64).
• The greatest ruler of this house was the famous RanaKumbha Karan (1538‐ 68). Rana Kumbha built the famousvictory tower or ‘Vijaya Stambh’ at Chittor to commemoratehis victory over Mahmud Khalji of Malwa.
• His court was adorned by Mandan who wrote manybooks on architecture (Parsad Mandan, Rupa Mandan).
• Another important king was Rana Sangram Singh(1509‐ 28), who defeated Mahmud‐ II of Malwa and Ibrahim Lodhi. But he was defeated by Babur at Khanua in 1527.

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN HISTORY

History of Sufis :

• There were 3 chief orders of Sufisin India : The Chishti,The Suharawadi and the Silsilah of Firdausi

The Chishti History :

• The Chisti order was established by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer). His two main disciples were Bakhtiyar Kaki and Shaikh Hamiduddin Sufi.
• Others were Nizamuddin Auliya, Nasiruddin Chiragh– i – Dehlvi, the historian Barani and the poet Amir Khusro.
• It was popular in Delhi and the Doab region.

VIJAYNAGAR KINGDOM

History of Vijaynagar Kingdom

• Founded in 1336 as a result of the political andcultural movement against the Tughluq authorityin the south.
• The empire of Vijaynagar was founded by Harihara – Iand Bukka, two of the five sons of Sangama. They were originally feudatories of Kakatiyas. Harihara – I was the firstruler. A Bhakti saint Vidyaranya motivated them.
• The Nayakar and Ayagar Systems : The Nayakarand Ayagar systems were the backbones of the Vijayanagaradministration.
• The Nayakar System : Under this system, militarychiefs were assigned certain pieces of land called amaram.These chiefs, known as nayaks, had revenue andadministrative rights on their lands.
• The Ayagar System : It involved the constitution of a12 – member officials group by the Centre to maintainadministration at the village level. These officials, calledthe ayagars, were village functionaries and constituted ofgroups of families.
• Adilshahi Kingdom of Bijapur : Founded by YusufAdil Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.
• Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmednagar : Foundedby Malik Ahmad. It was annexed by the Mughals in 1636.
• Imadshahi Kingdom of Berar : Founded by FatehUllah Imad Shah. It was annexed by Ahmednagar in 1574.
• Qutub shahi Kingdom of Golconda : Founded byQutub Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.
• Baridshahi Kingdom of Bidar : Founded by AmirAH Barid. It was annexed by Bijapur in 1618 – 19.

MUGHAL EMPERORS OF INDIA

Babar Emperor (1526 – 1530) :

• Was a descended of Timur on his father’s side andChengiz Khan on his mother’s side
• Originally ruledover Ferghana (Afghanistan). Hebecame the Sultan at the early age of 12, when hisfather Sultan Umar Shaikh Mirza died.
• He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodhi(Subedar of Punjab), Alam Khan (uncle ofIbrahim Lodhi) and Rana Sanga.
• Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in1526.
• Defeated Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) of Mewar inthe Battle of Khanua in 1527
• Defeated another Rajput ruler, Medini Rai (ofChanderi) in the Battle of Chanderi in 1528.
• Defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodibrother of Ibrahim Lodi) in the Battle of Ghagra in 1529.
• Died in 1530. Buried at Aram Bagh in Agra; later hisbody was taken to Aram Bagh, Kabul

Humayun (1530 – 40 and 1555 – 56)

• He was born to Mahim Begam and Babur.
• Defeated the Afghan forces at Daurah in 1532.
• He was attacked by Sher Shah at Chausa (Battle ofChausa) in 1539, but escaped. Here Humayun was saved byNizam, a water carrier (saqqa).
• But in the Battle of Kannauj (also called Battle ofBilgram) in 1540, he was defeated by Sher Shahand had to flee.
• Passed nearly 15 years (1540 – 1555) in exile.
• Had the chance to return in 1555. Sher Shah, the victorof Kannauj, died in 1545. He was succeededby his son Islam Shah, who ruled up to 1553. He wassucceeded by Muhammad Adil Shah.
• Bairam Khan, his most faithful officer, helped him inthis.
• Died in 1556, due to a fall from his library buildingstairs (Sher Mandal, Delhi) seven months after he capturedDelhi. It is said about him that “Humayun tumbled throughlife and he tumbled out of it”.
• Gulbadan Begum, his half – sister, wrote Humayun –nama

History of Akbar (1556 – 1605) :

• Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar was the son of Humayunand Hamida Banu Begam. He was born at Amarkot in 1542.
• Bairam Khan coronated him at Kalanaur when he was14 years old.
• Bairam Khan represented him in the Second Battle ofPanipat in 1556 against Hemu Vikramaditya.
• Hemu, the PM of Muhammad Shah Adil of Bengal, wasdefeated. Hemu is considered the last Hinduking of Delhi.
• Conquered Malwa in 1561 defeating Baz Bahadur.
• Won Gujarat in 1572. It was in order to commemoratehis victory of Gujarat that Akbar got the Buland Darwazaconstructed at Fatehpur Sikri.
• Also introduced the Mansabdary System to organise the nobility as well as the army. Mansabdar meant holder of a rank

Akbar’s Navratna History :

• Abu’l – Fazl, the Wazir of Akbar and author of theAkbamama an account of Akbar’s reign.
• Faizi was historian Abul Fazl’s brother in Akbar’scourt. He was a poet composing in Persian and an all – round genius.
• Tansen, believed to be one of the greatest musician ofall times, was born in a Hindu family in Gwalior
• Raja Birbal, alias Mahesh Das, was a courtier in theadministration of Akbar.
• Raja Todar Mai was Akbar’s finance minister, whooverhauled the revenue system in the kingdom.
• Raja Man Singh was the Kacchwaha raja of Amber.He was a mansabdar and a trusted general of Akbar
• Abdul Rahim Khan – e – Khana was a poet and theson of Akbar’s trusted caretaker, Bairam Khan. After Bairam Khan was murdered, Bairan Khan’s wife becamethe second wife of Akbar, which made Abdul Rahim Khan– e Khan his stepson
• Faqir Aziao Din was one of Akbar’s chief advisors.
• Mullah Do Piaza was among the Mughal emperorAkbar’s chief advisors

History of Jahangir (1605 – 1627) :

• Akbar’s eldest son Salim assumed the title ofNuruddin Muhammad Jahangir and ascended thethrone.
• The fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjun Dev, had helpedKhusro. So he was also executed after 5 days oftorture
• His greatest failure was the loss of Kandahar to Persiain 1622.
• The most important event in Jahangir’s life was hismarriage to Mehr – un – Nisa, the widow of Sher Afghaniin 1611. The title of Nur Jahan was conferred on her.
• Captain Hawkins (1608 – 11) and Sir Thomas Roe(1615 – 1619) visited his court. Due to the effortsof Sir Thomas Roe English factories were established atSurat and some other places

History of Shahjahan (1628 – 1658) :

• Shahjahan’s policy of annexing the Deccan was quitesuccessful. Ahmednagar was annexed whileBijapur and Golconda accepted his overlordship.
• In 1639, Shahjahan secured Kandahar andimmediatelyfortified it.
• Aurangzeb’s second term as Viceroy in Deccan beganin 1653 and continued till 1658. Aurangzebbuilt an effective Revenue System there (Murshid Kuli Khanwas his dewan there).
• Last 8 years of his life were very painful, as there wasa brutal war of succession among his four sons – Dara, Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad. Dara was his favourite butAurangzeb was the ablest.
• Ultimately, Aurangzeb took control and he was madethe prisoner in the Agra Fort, being looked after by hisdaughter, Jahan Ara, till his death in 1666.
• His reign is considered the ‘Golden Age of the MughalEmpire’
• Taj Mahal, the eternal love monument is located inAgra. Shah Jahan commissioned its construction as
• a mausoleum lor his favourite wife, Arjumancl BanoBegum, better known as Mumtaz Mahal, in
• 1631.

Aurangzeb Alamgir (1658 – 1707) :

• At the time of Shahjahan’s illness, Dara was in Delhiand the other brothers were in different
• places – Shuja in Bengal, Murad in Gujarat andAurangzeb in Deccan.
• Aurangzeb first defeated the Imperial army in theBattle of Dharmat and then defeated a force led by
• Dara in the Battle of Samugarh
• He caused serious rift in the Mughal‐ Rajput alliance by his policy of annexation of Marwar in 1639 after the deaofRaja Jaswant Singh.
• In 1675, he ordered the arrest and execution of ninthSikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur

MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

Portuguese in India

• The Portuguese voyager Vasco da Gama reachedCalicut on May 17, 1498.
• The first Governor of Portuguese in India wasFrancisco Almeida.
• In 1661, the Portuguese king gave Bombay to CharlesII of England as dowry, for marrying hissister.

Dutch East India Company:

• Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602.
• They set – up their first factory at Masulipatnam in1605

English East India Company:

• The English East India Company was formed in 1599,and was given the royal Charter by QueenElizabeth I in 1600 to trade in the east.
• Captain William Hawkins stayed in Jahangir’s courtfrom 1609 – 1611. But he failed to get theKing’s permission to erect a factory at Surat.
• Captain Middleton succeeded in this effort in 1611
• Bombay was made the Company’s main settlement onthe west coast in 1668.
• Aurangzeb gave the Company the Farman in 1667 totrade in Bengal. In 1690, a factory was set up at Sutanutivillage.
• The French East India Company was set in 1664.
• They established their first factor)’ at Surat in
• 1668 and at Masulipatnam in 1669

GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA

Warren Hastings Plan 1772 – 1785:

• Brought the Dual Govt, of Bengal to an end by theRegulating Act, 1773.
• The First Anglo – Maratha War (1776 – 82), whichended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782), and
• the Second Anglo – Mysore War (1780 – 84), whichended with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784), were foughtduring Hasting’s period.

Lord Cornwallis India (1786 – 1793) :

• Did the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (also calledZamindary System).
• The civil service was brought into existence.

Lord Wellesley in India (1798 – 1805) :

• Adopted the policy of Subsidiary Alliance a system tokeep the Indian rulers under controland to make the British the paramount power.
• He defeated the Mysore force under Tipu Sultan in theFourth Anglo – Mysore War in 1799.
  George Barlow (1805 – 1807)
  Lord Minto I Governor General of India (1807–1813):
• Concluded the treaty of Amritsar with Maharaja RanjitSingh (1809). Charter Act of 1813 waspassed.

Lord Hasting India (1813 – 1823) :

• The Anglo‐ Nepal War (1814 – 16) was fought duringhis reign which ended with the Treaty of Sagauli (1816).

Lord Amherst (1823 – 1828)

Lord William Bentinck History (1828‐ 1835)

• Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sari(1829) and elimination of thugs (1830).
• Made English the medium of higher education in thecountry (After the recommendations of Macaulay CharterAct of 1833 was passed; made him the first GovernorGeneral of India.

Sir Charles Mercalfe History (1835 – 1836) :

• Abolished all restrictions on vernacular press (calledLiberator of the Press).

Lord Auckland 1842 (1836 – 1842)

• The most important event of his reign was the FirstAfghan War, which proved to be a disaster for the English.

Lord Ellenborough (1842 – 1844)

Lord Hardinge I (1844 – 1848)

Lord Dalhousie Reforms (1848 – 1856) :

• Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombayto Thane).
• Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was fromCalcutta to Agra).
• Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara(1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852),Jhansi (1854) and Nagpur (1854) through it.
• Established the postal system on the modern linesthrough the length and breadth of the country, which madecommunication easier.

REVOLT OF 1857 IN INDIA

Causes of Revolt of 1857:

Immediate Cause ‐ ‐ > Soldiers made to bite off ends ofgreased cartridges in ‘Enfield Rifles’having fat of cows and pigs

• Barrackpore – Mangal Pande refused to usecartridges and attacked Adjutant of his regiment,for fear of moss of his caste and religion. (Arrested andhanged on 8th April, 1857)
• Delhi :‐ Revolutionaries killed British soldiers,captured Delhi, and proclaimed Bahadur Shah IIthe ruler of India
• Kanpur :‐ Led by Nana Sahib, adopted son ofPeshwa Baji Rao II
• Lucknow :‐ Led by Begum of Oudh; Sir Henry Lawrence shot dead. Defeated and recaptured bySir Colin Campbell in 1858.

Central India :‐ Led by Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi andTantia Tope. Occupied GwaliorMilitary : ‐

• General Service Enlistment Act, 1856 NumericalStrength of Indian Soldiers
• Effect of Annexation of Oudh
• Unjust Treatment
• Loss of British Prestige in Afghan War.

Religious

• Social and Religious Reforms – Swami Dayanand
• Saraswati, Raja Rammohan Roy
• Introduction of Railways and Telegraphs
• Government Support to Missionaries
• Introduction of New Laws – Lord Dalhousie
• Introduction of Modern Education

Economic

• Exploitation of Natural Resources
• Subordination of Indian Industry
• Collapse of Handicrafts and Cottage Industries
• Economic Draining of India
• Unemployment among People
• Resumption of Tax‐ free Lands – Confiscation by
• Lord Dalhousie; Introduction by Lord WilliamBentinck
• Unemployment, Poverty, and Famine

Political

• Policy of Annexation – Doctrine of Lapse; Lord
• Dalhousie; Annexed Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur.
• The Annexation of Oudh – Lord Dalhousie
• Disrespect shown to Bahadur Shah
• Disrespect to Nana Sahib and Rani of Jhansi
• Disbanding the Armies of the Annexed States
• Inefficient Handling of the Situation – Corrupt andgreedy British officials.
• Spreading of a Rumor – Belief that rulers in Indiachange after every 100 years

VICEROYS OF INDIA (1858‐ AUG 14, 1947)

Lord Canning (1856—1862)

• The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.
• Mutiny took place in his time.
• On Nov.1858, the rule passed on to the crown.
• Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
• The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madraswere established in 1857. Indian Councils Act was passedin 1861.

Lord Elgin (1862‐ 1863)

Lord Lawrence (1864‐ 1869)

• Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.
• High courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay andMadras in 1865. Expanded canal works and railways

Lord Mayo (1869‐ 1872)

• Started the process of financial decentralization inIndia.
• Established the Rajkot College at Kathiarwar and Mayo college at Ajmer for the Indian princes. For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.
• Organised the Statistical Survey of India
• Was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by aPathan convict in the Andamans in 1872.

Lord Northbrook (1872‐ 1876)

Lord L. Ytton (1876‐ 1880)

• Known as the Viceroy of reverse characters.Organised the Grand ‘Delhi Durbar’ in 1877 todecorate Queen
• Victoria with the title of ‘Kaiser‐ i‐ Hind’.
• Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians toacquire license for arms.
• Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878).

Lord Ripon (1880‐ 1884)

• Liberal person, who sympathized with Indians.
• Vernacular Press Act (1882)
• Passed the local self— government Act (1882).
• Took steps to improve primary & secondary
• education (on William
• Hunter Commission’s recommendations).
• The I Factory Act, 1881, aimed at prohibiting childlabour was passed

Lord Dufferin (1884‐ 1888)

• Indian National Congress was formed during histenure.

Lord Lansdowne (1888‐ 1894)

• II Factory Act (1891) granted a weekly holiday andstipulated working hours for women and children, althoughit failed to address concerns such as work hours for men.
• Categorization of Civil Services into Imperial,Provincial and Subordinate.
• Indian Council Act of 1892 was passed.

Lord Elgin II (1894‐ 1899)

• Great famine of 1896‐ 1897. Lyall Commission wasappointed.

Lord Curzon (1 899‐ 1905)

• Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904) in whichofficial control over the Universities was increased.
• Partitioned Bengal (October 16, 1905) into twoprovinces Bengal (proper) East Bengal & Assam.
• Appointed a Police Commission under Sir AndrewFrazer to enquire into the police administration of everyprovince.
• The risings of the frontier tribes in 1897‐ 98 led himto create the
• North Western Frontier Province (NWFP).
• Extended railways to a great extent

Lord Minto (1905‐ 1910)

• There was great political unrest in India. Various actswere passed to curb the revolutionaryactivities. Extremists like Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh(in May, 1907) and Bal Gangadhar Tilak (in July, 1908)were sent to Mandalay jail in Burma.
• The Indian Council Act of 1909 or the Morley‐
• Minto Reforms was passed.

Lord Hardinge (1910‐ 1916)

• Held a durbar in Dec, 1911 to celebrate the coronationof King George V.
• Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911); capitalshifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911). Delhi wasmade capital in place of Calcutta.
• A bomb was thrown at him, but he escaped unhurt (Dec, 23 1912). Gandhiji came back to India from South Africa(1915).
• Annie Besant announced the Home Rule Movement.

Lord Chelmsford (1916‐ 1921)

• August Declaration of 1917, whereby control over theIndian government would be gradually transferred to theIndian people. The government of India Act in 1919(Montague‐ Chelmsford)

Lord Reading (1921‐ 1926)

• Rowlatt Act was repealed along with the Press Act of1910.
• Communal riots of 1923‐ 25 in Multan, AmritsarDelhi, etc.
• Swami Shraddhanand, a great nationalist and a leaderof the Arya
• Samajists, was murdered in communal orgy

Lord Irwin (1926‐ 1931)

• Simon Commission visited India in 1928.
• Congress passed the Indian Resolution in 1929.
• Dandi March (Mar 12, 1930).
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930).
• First Round Table Conference held in England in1930.
• Gandhi ‐ Irwin Pact (Mar 5, 1931) was signed andCivil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn.
• Martyrdom of Jatin Das after 64 days hunger strike(1929).

Lord Willingdon (1931‐ 1936)

• Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931.
• On his return Gandhiji was again arrested and CivilDisobedience Movement was resumed in Jan. 1932.
• Communal Awards (Aug 16, 1932) assigned seats todifferent religious communities. Gandhiji went
• on a epic fast in protest against this division.
• Third Round Table Conference in 1932

Lord Linlithgow (1936‐ 1944)

• Govt. of India Act enforced in the provinces.
• Congress ministries formed in 8 out of 11 provinces.They remained in power for about 2 years till Oct 1939,when they gave up offices on the issue of India having beendragged into the II World War. The Muslim Leagueobserved the day as ‘Deliverance Day’
• Churchill became the British PM in May, 1940. Hedeclared that the
• Atlantic Charter (issued jointly by the UK and US,stating to give sovereign rights to those who have beenforcibly deprived of them does not apply to India.
• Outbreak of World War II in 1939.
• Cripps Mission in 1942.
• Quit India Movement (August 8, 1942).

Lord Wavell (1944‐ 1947)

• Arranged the Shimla Conference on June 25, 1945with Indian National Congress and Muslim
• League; failed.
• Cabinet Mission Plan (May 16, 1946).
• Elections to the constituent assembly were held and anInterim
• First meeting of the constituent assembly washeld on Dec. 9, 1946.

Lord Mountbatten (MAR.1947‐ AUG.1947)

• Last Viceroy of British India and the first GovernorGeneral of free India.
• Partition of India decided by the June 3 Plan. IndianIndependence Act passed by the British parliament on July4, 1947, by which India became independent on August 15,1947.
• Retired in June 1948 and was succeeded by C.Rajagopalachari (the first and the last Indian GovernorGeneral of free India).

INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENTS

The Indian National Congress

• Formed in 1885 by A.O.Hume, an Englishman and aretired civil servant
• First session in Bombay under W.C.Banerjee in 1885(72 delegates attended it).
• In the first two decades (1885 – 1905), quite moderatein its approach and confided in Britishjustice and generosity.
• But the repressive measures of the British gave rise toextremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, BalGangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal).

Partition of Bengal:

• By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royalProclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size bycreating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
• The objective was to set up a communal gulf betweenHindus and Muslims.
• A mighty upsurge swept the country against thepartition. National movement found real expression in themovement against the partition of Bengal in 1905

Swadeshi Movement (1905):

• Lal, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played theimportant role.
• INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K.Gokhale. Bonfires of foreigngoods were conducted at various places.

Formation of Muslim League (1906):

• Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan,Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsinul‐ Mulk.
• It was a loyalist, communal and conservative politicalorganization which supported the partition of Bengal,opposed the Swadeshi movement, and demanded specialsafeguards to its community and a separate electorate forMuslims

Demand for Swaraj:

• In Dec 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under DadabhaiNaoroji adopted ‘Swaraj’ (Self‐ govt) as the goal of Indianpeople.

Surat Session of Indian National Congress (1907):

• The INC split into two groups – The extremists andthe moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremistswereled by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K.Gokhale.

Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms (1909):

• Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged aseparate electorate for Muslims Aimed at dividing thenationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates and theMuslims to the Government’s side.

Ghadar Party (1913):

• Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and SohanSingh Bhakna. HQ was at San Francisco.

Home Rule Movement (1916):

• Started by B.G.Tilak (April, 1916) at Poona moreoverAnnie Besant and S.Subramania Iyer atAdyar, near Madras (Sept, 1916)
• Objective: Self – government for India in the BritishEmpire. Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with thedemand for the formation of Linguistic States and educationin vernacular language. He gave the slogan: Swaraj is mybirth right and I will have it

Lucknow Pact (1916)

• Happened following a war between Britain and Turkeyleading to anti‐ British feelings among Muslims. Both INCand Muslim League concluded this (Congress accepted theseparate electorates and both jointly demanded for arepresentative government and dominion status for thecountry).

The Indian National Congress

• Formed in 1885 by A.O.Hume, an Englishman and aretired civil servant
• First session in Bombay under W.C.Banerjee in 1885(72 delegates attended it).
• In the first two decades (1885 – 1905), quite moderatein its approach and confided in British justice andgenerosity.
• But the repressive measures of the British gave rise toextremists within Congress like Bipin Chandra Pal, BalGangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal, Bal, Pal).

Partition of Bengal:

• By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royalProclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size bycreating East Bengal and Assam out of rest of Bengal.
• The objective was to set up a communal gulf betweenHindus and Muslims.
• A mighty upsurge swept the country against thepartition. National movement found real expression in themovement against the partition of Bengal in 1905

Swadeshi Movement (1905):

• Lal, Bal, Pal, and Aurobindo Ghosh played theimportant role.
• INC took the Swadeshi call first at the Banaras Session, 1905 presided over by G.K.Gokhale. Bonfires of foreigngoods were conducted at various places.

Formation of Muslim League (1906):

• Setup in 1906 under the leadership of Aga Khan,Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsinul‐ Mulk.
• It was a loyalist, communal and conservative politicalorganization which supported the partition of Bengal,opposed the Swadeshi movement, and demanded specialsafeguards to its community and a separate electorate forMuslims.

Demand for Swaraj:

• In Dec 1906 at Calcutta, the INC under DadabhaiNaoroji adopted ‘Swaraj’ (Self‐ govt) as the goal of Indianpeople.

Surat Session of Indian National Congress (1907):

• The INC split into two groups – The extremists andthe moderates, at the Surat session in 1907. Extremistswereled by Bal, Pal, Lal while the moderates by G.K.Gokhale.

Indian Councils Act or Minto Morley Reforms (1909):

• Besides other constitutional measures, it envisaged aseparate electorate for MuslimsAimed at dividing thenationalist ranks and atrallying the Moderates and theMuslims to the Government’s side

Ghadar Party (1913):

• Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das and SohanSingh Bhakna. HQ was at San Francisco.
• Home Rule Movement (1916):
• Started by B.G.Tilak (April, 1916) at PoonamoreoverAnnie Besant and S.Subramania Iyer atAdyar, near Madras (Sept, 1916)
• Objective: Self – government for India in the BritishEmpire. Tilak linked up the question of Swaraj with thedemand for the formation ofLinguistic States and educationin vernacularlanguage. He gave the slogan: Swaraj is mybirthright and I will have it.

Lucknow Pact (1916)

• Happened following a war between Britain and Turkeyleading to anti‐ British feelings amongMuslims. Both INCand Muslim League concludedthis (Congress accepted theseparate electoratesand both jointly demanded for arepresentativegovernment and dominion status forthecountry).

August Declaration (1917):

• After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy wasannounced which aimed at “increasing association ofIndians in every branch of the administration forprogressiverealization of responsible government in India asan integral part of the British empire”. This cameto becalled the August Declaration.

Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919)

• This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest andimprison suspects without trial for two years maximum. This law enabled the Government to suspend the right of HabeasCorpus, which had been the foundation of civilliberties in Britain.
• Caused a wave of anger in all sections. It was the firstcountry‐ wide agitation by Gandhiji and marked thefoundation of the Non Cooperation Movement.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):

• People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu andDr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919.
• General O’ Dyer fires at people who assembled in theJallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.
• As a result hundreds of men, women and childrenwerekilled and thousands injured.
• Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood inprotest. Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy’sExecutive Council after this.
• Hunter Commission was appointed to enquire into it.
• On March 13, 1940, Sardar UdhamSingh killed O’Dyerwhen the later was addressing a meetingin Caxton Hall, London.

Khilafat Movement (1920):

• Muslims were agitated by the treatment done withTurkey by the British in the treaty that followed the FirstWorld War.
• Two brothers, Mohd.Ali and Shaukat Ali started thismovement.

Non‐ cooperation Movement (1920):

• It was the first mass‐ based political movement underGandhiji.
• Congress passed the resolution in its Calcutta sessionin Sept 1920.

Chauri –Chaura Incident (1922):

• A mob of people at Chauri – Chaura (near Gorakhpur)clashed with police and burnt 22 policemen on February 5,1922.
• This compelled Gandhiji to withdraw the NonCooperation movement on Feb.12, 1922

Simon Commission (1927):

• Constituted under John Simon, to review the politicalsituation in India and to introduce further reforms andextension of parliamentary democracy.
• Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there wereno Indians in it.
• The Government used brutal repression and policeattacks to break the popular opposition. At Lahore, LalaLajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathi‐ charge. Hesuccumbed to his injuries on Oct.30, 1928.

Lahore Session (1929):

• On Dec.19, 1929 under the President ship ofJ.L.Nehru, the INC, at its Lahore Session, declared Poorna Swaraj(Complete independence) as its ultimate goal.
• On Dec.31, 1929, the newly adopted tri‐ colour flag wasunfurled and an.26, 1930 was fixed as the FirstIndependence Day, was to be celebrated every year.

Revolutionary Activities:

• The first political murder of a European was committedin 1897 at Poona by the Chapekar brothers,Damodar andBalkishan. Their target was Mr.Rand, President of thePlague Commission, but Lt.Ayerst wasaccidentally shot.
• In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionaryunfurled the flag of India at Stuttgart Congress (of Secondinternational).
• In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla chaki threw abomb on the carriage of kingford, the unpopular
• judge of Muzaffapur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt andSatyendranath Bose were hanged. (AlipurCase)
• In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col.William CurzonWhyllie, the political advisor of “India Office” in London.
• In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyalthrew a bomb and Lord Hardinge at Delhi. (DelhiConspiracyCase).
• In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at Kanpur. They setup HindustanSocialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA).
• They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound trainon the Saharanpur‐ Lucknow railway line onAug. 9, 1925
• Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues, shot dead Saunders(Asst. S.P. of Lahore, who ordered lathicharge on Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec.17, 1928
• Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw abombin the Central Assembly on Apr 8, 1929.
• Thus, he, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on March. 23,1931 at Lahore Jall (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and theirbodies cremated at Hussainiwala near Ferozepur.
• In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 daysfast to protest against horrible conditions in jail.
• Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the IndianRepublic Army in Bengal. In 1930, hemasterminded the raid on Chittagong armoury. He washanged in 1933.
• In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at AlfredPark in Allahabad.

Dandi March (1930):

• Also called the Salt Satyagraha.
• Along with 78 followers, Gandhiji started his marchfrom Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930 for the smallvillage Dandhi to break the salt law. He reached the seashore on Apr.6, 1930. He picked a handful of salt and inauguratedthe Civil Disobedience Movement.

First Round Table conference (1930):

• It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was held on Nov.12, 1930 inLondon to discuss Simon commission.
• Boycotted by INC, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha,Liberals and some others were there.

Gandhi Irwin Pact (1931):

• Moderate Statesman, Sapru, Jaikar and SrinivasShastri initiated efforts to break the ice betweenGandhiji and the government.
• The two (government represented by Irwin and INCby Gandhiji) signed a pact on March 5, 1931.
• In this the INC called off the civil disobediencemovement and agreed to join the second roundtable conference
• The government on its part released the politicalprisoners and conceded the right to make salt forconsumption for villages along the coast

Second Round Table Conference (1931):

• Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London tomeet British P.M. Ramsay Macdonald.
• However, the session was soon deadlocked on theminorities issue and this time separate electorates wasdemanded not only by Muslims but also by DepressedClasses, Indian Christians and Anglo – Indians.

The Communal Award (Aug 16,1932):

• Announced by Ramsay McDonald. It showed divideand rule policy of the British.
• Envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, IndianChristians, Anglo Indians, women and evenBackward classes.
• Gandhiji, who was in Yeravada jail at that time, starteda fast unto death against it. Poona Pact (September 25,1932):
• After the announcement of communal award andsubsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meeting tookplace almost everywhere.
• Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya,B.R.Ambedkar and M.C.Rajah became active.
• Eventually Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji brokehis fact on the sixth day (Sept 25, 1932).
• In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressedclasses was abandoned, but seats reserved to them in theprovincial legislature were increased.

Third Round Table Conference (1932):

• Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were inprison. The discussions led to the passingof the Government of India Act, 1935.

Demand for Pakistan

• In 1930, Iqbal suggested that the Frontier Province,Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir bemade the Muslim State within the federation.
• Chaudhary Rehmat Ali gave the term Pakistan in1923.
• Mohd. Ali Jinnah of Bombay gave it practicality.
• Muslim League first passed the proposal of separatePakistan in its Lahore session in 1940.

The Cripps Mission – 1942:

• In Dec. 1941, Japan entered the World War – II andadvanced towards Indian borders. By March7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire S EAsia.
• The British govt. with a view to getting cooperationfrom Indians sent Sir Stafford Cripps,leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with theIndian leaders.
• He offered a draft which proposed dominion status tobe granted after the war
• Rejected by the Congress as it didn’t want to rely uponfuture promises.
• Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashingbank.

The Revolt of 1942 &The Quit India Movement:

• Called the Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt.
• The resolution was passed on Aug.8, 1942, atBombay. Gandhiji gave the slogan ‘Do or Die’.
• On Aug 9, the Congress was banned and its importantleaders were arrested
• The arrests provoked indignation among the massesand, there being no program of action, the
• movement became spontaneous and violent. Violencespread throughout the country.
• The movement was however crushed.

The Indian National Army:

• Founded by Rasbehari Bose with Captain MohanSingh
• S.C.Bose secretly escaped from India in Jain 1941, andreached Berlin. In July 1943, he joined theINA at Singapore. There, Rasbehari Bose handed over theleadership to him.
• The soldiers were mostly raised from Indian soldiersof the British army who had been takenprisoners by the Japanese after they conquered S.E.Asia.
• Two INA head quarters were Rangoon and Singapore(formed in Singapore).
• INA had three fighting brigades named after. Gandhiji,Azad and Nehru. Rani Jhansi Brigadewas an exclusive women force

The Cabinet Mission Plan (1946):

• The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945‐ 46. The new Labour PartyPM.Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British CabinetMission (comprising of Lord Pethick Lawrence asChairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander) will visit India.
• The mission held talks with the INC and ML to bringabout acceptance of their proposals.
• On May 16, 1946, the mission put towards itsproposals. It rejected the demand for separate
• Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting ofBritish India and the Princely States was Suggested.
• Both Congress and Muslims League accepted it.

Formation of Interim Government (Sept 2, 1946):

• Based on Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on Sept.2, 1946. J.L. Nehru was its Vice‐ President and the Governor‐General remained as its Presidentits President

Jinnah’s Direct Action Resolution (Aug 16, 1946):

• Jinnah was alarmed at the results of the electionsbecause the Muslim League was in danger ofbeing totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly.
• Therefore, Muslim League withdrew its acceptance ofthe Cabinet Mission Plan on July 29,1946.
• It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, whichcondemned both the British Government and theCongress (Aug 16, 1946). It resulted in heavy communalriots.
• Jinnah celebrated Pakistan Day on Mar 27, 1947

Formation of Constituent Assembly (Dec 9, 1946):

• The Constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 andDr.Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.
• Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947):
• On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward hisplan which outlined the steps for the solutionof India’s political problem. The outlines of the Plan were:
• India to be divided into India and Pakistan.
• Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and areferendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assamwould be held.
• There would be a separate constitutional assembly forPakistan to frame its constitution.
• The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to joineither India or Pakistan or even remain independent.
• Aug.15, 1947 was the date fixed for handing overpower to India and Pakistan.
• The British govt. passed the Indian Independence Actof 1947 in July 1947, which contained themajor provisions put forward by the Mountbatten plan.

Partition and Independence (Aug 1947):

• All political parties accepted the Mountbatten plan.
• At the time of independence, there were 562 small andbig Princely States in India.
• Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister,used iron hand in this regard. By August 15, 1947, 1all the States, with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad andJunagarh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa waswith the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.
• French Colonies: By the end of 1954, French colonialrule in Pondicherry, chandranagar, Mahe, Karaikal andYanam came to an end. These territories were integratedwith India.
• Portuguese Colonies. : The Portuguese colonies inIndia ere Goa, Daman, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli. In1954, Dadra and Nagar Haveli were liberated by freedomfighters. Indian troops linerated Goa, Daman and Diu fromthe Portuguese in 1961.

Important sayings

• Back to Vedas- Dayanand Saraswati
• Dharma Chakra Pravartana- Mahatma Buddha
• Dili chalo- Subhash Chandra Bose’s battle cry of Azadhind Fauj
• Do or Die- Mahatma Gandhi ( While launching QuitIndian movement in 1942
• Give me blood and I will give you freedom- SubhasChandra Bose( in the address to soliders of Azad HindFauj.)
• My ultimate aim is to wipe every tear from every eye.-Jawahar Lal Nehru
• Sawaraj is my birth right and I will have it- BalGangadhar Tilak.